Impacts on the relationship with the Internet, work engagement and life balance

Emilie Vayre^[1], Anne-Marie Vonthron and Maëlle Perissé^[2]

In a context where the boundaries of companies are being redrawn at the international, national, and local levels, the deployment of information and communication technologies (ICTs) has imposed itself on companies, disrupting the way work is organised. However, the effects of their introduction into the professional sphere, in terms of work spaces and temporalities, the relationship with work, individual or organisational performance, and the health of employees, remain ambivalent (e.g., Chesley, 2014; Colombier et al., 2007; Fenner and Renn, 2010; Isaac et al., 2007; Thomas, 2014).

Regarding the literature on the impact of the use of these technologies for work purposes, we have paid attention to four lines of investigation. First, we will see that the increasingly sophisticated and accessible mobile technologies allow workers to remain constantly connected to their work, at any time and from anywhere (e.g., Boswell and Olson-Buchanan, 2007; Fenner and Renn, 2010; Thomas, 2014). Second, we will discuss problematic uses of the Internet. Although few studies have focused on the inappropriate or abusive use of technologies in professional contexts, some authors consider that employees who devote an increasing proportion of their working time to searching for and manipulating information may become truly dependent on it (Durand et al., 2008). Finally, we shall see that the reconfiguration of work times and spaces associated to the use of technology is not without consequences for work commitment and the establishment of a boundary between work and private life.

Our approach aims to model the respective effects of professional Internet use on the development of excessive Internet use, commitment to work and the perceived impact of work on private life. In this perspective, following our review of the literature, we will present the empirical study we conducted among 389 managers (supervisors or not). The practical knowledge acquired is likely to contribute to the reflection and the implementation of in situ experiments concerning the regulation of technology use for professional purposes, as well as the enforcement of the right to disconnect and to rest.

1. Review of the literature on the field

1.1. Use of technology in the professional context

Although the implementation and use of digital technologies have beneficial effects on work, they also produce multiple dysfunctions and can lead to abuses. Many authors stress that the use of these technologies contributes to an increase in the pace of work, a reduction in information processing time, the fragmentation of activities and working time, the implementation of multitasking behaviours, accelerating the circulation of information, increasing the volume of information exchanged, and contributing to information overload and employees’ sense of urgency (e.g., Chesley, 2014; Isaac et al., 2007). They thus contribute to work intensification, especially among executives and managers, who thanks to mobile technologies take advantage of ‘dead time’ (waiting, commuting time, etc.) to check e-mails, read electronic documents and communicate with colleagues or collaborators (Isaac et al., 2007).

In addition, they facilitate the extension of work into the realm of ‘off-work life’, carrying out work outside of traditional workplaces and thus enabling employees to stay connected and continue their work activity in their free time (Boswell and Olson-Buchanan, 2007; Rey and Sitnikoff, 2004). Indeed, more and more employees are complaining of difficulties in disconnecting from work, reporting working longer hours and continuing to work in the evenings, at weekends, and even during holidays (Fenner and Renn, 2010). Senarathne Tennakoon et al. (2013) find in this respect that the use of ICT at work and during a working day correlates strongly and positively with the professional use of ICT during non-working days. Technologies thus allow employees, especially those in managerial positions, to be available at all times and places, with some experiencing a sort of ‘electronic leash’ (Boswell and Olson-Buchanan, 2007; Isaac et al., 2007; Thomas 2014). As ICT allows employees to work anywhere, organisations expect them to be able to work all the time (Rey and Sitnikoff, 2004).

Finally, in terms of their impact, the increase in workload, the intensification and extension of work underpinned by technologies result in difficulties for workers to disengage from their work, generating stress, psychological distress and anxiety (Chesley, 2014; Colombier et al., 2007; Thomas, 2014).

1.2. Overflow work via ICT

Although the phenomenon of work spillover into ‘non-work’ is not new, it has increased since the introduction of technology in work organisations. According to Fenner and Renn (2010), ICT spillover work refers to discretionary activity which is not formalised by a contract, lacks financial compensation, does not replace traditional working hours, and is particularly relevant for executives.

Team management, work (over)load, time pressure and autonomy at work, but also social norms and organisational culture, are factors recognised as encouraging the extension of activity outside the usual place and time via ICT (e.g., Senarathne Tennakoon et al., 2013). Indeed, current management and appraisal systems frequently refer to expectations, more or less formal, in terms of availability and mobility, accessibility and responsiveness, criteria for assessing commitment and productivity, and internal promotion (Matusik and Mickel, 2011; Thomas, 2014). The study by Fenner and Renn (2010) shows, for example, that the demands of organisations and the social norms they convey are interpreted by employees as pressure to use technologies to continue working at home after working hours. ICT thus induces new forms of indirect control or supervision of employees (Colombier et al., 2007) and supports the new demands of organisations requiring a greater subjective investment from employees (Rey and Sitnikoff, 2004).

As we shall see below, most studies focus mainly on the deleterious effects of the use of technology in the interface between work and private life. Fewer studies, on the other hand, have sought to understand the potential links between the use of technology for work purposes, both in and out of working space-time, and the development of problematic behaviours with respect to technology and/or the Internet.

1.3. Excessive use of the Internet

As the use of technology has become more widespread, generalised, and penetrated most work environments, the workplace and activity allow a greater access to ICT and the time spent on the Internet has increased. According to Griffiths (2003), problem behaviours in other areas have already shown that easier access encourages more frequent and regular use, which can lead to uncontrolled behaviour. All users are therefore potentially affected by these new forms of pathologies (Durand et al., 2008). Although the general use time is not a criterion in itself for cyberaddiction, it does constitute a warning signal, since several studies show a positive and significant link between cyberaddiction and the number of weekly or daily hours of Internet use, regardless of the activities carried out or the applications used (Khazaal et al., 2008; Vanea, 2011). According to some authors, the proliferation of mobile tools in the workplace can only reinforce the tendency to want to remain constantly connected: more and more employees can no longer bring themselves to turn off their phones or digital devices, which can go as far as waking up several times at night to compulsively check their e-mail and SMSs (Durand et al., 2008).

There is very little empirical data regarding the workplace and Internet addiction. In 2004, Widyanto and McMurran found that there was no significant correlation between the intensity of weekly work-related Internet use and Internet addiction. For other authors, problematic Internet use behaviours may be directly related to work-related factors. Durand et al. (2008) explain that particular work constraints (high objectives, excessive responsibilities, conflicting work relationships, etc.) are sources of stress the symptoms of which (physical, emotional, cognitive, or behavioural) may be coupled with behavioural addiction. Beard (2005) suggests that cultural factors, such as belonging to a technologically advanced society or the need to use the Internet for work purposes, encourage Internet use to such an extent that it may be detrimental to the individual. More recently, research by Salanova et al. (2013) shows that time overload at work reinforces technology addiction, especially among employees who use it intensively for work. Finally, according to Wright et al. (2014), the dependence on communication technologies, which pushes workers to use them continuously to stay in constant contact with the professional sphere, can lead to a perception of work-life conflict, increased stress and, ultimately, to professional burnout.

1.4. Technology use and work-life interface

The vast majority of studies on the effects of work-related technology use, especially when deployed after hours and at home, show that it contributes to a blurring of the boundary between work and personal life and promotes the intrusion of work into personal life, as well as the perception of negative interference and conflict between work and private life, as employees find it very difficult to establish a functional boundary between these two domains of existence (Boswell and Olson-Buchanan, 2007; Isaac et al. 2007; Fenner and Renn, 2010; Tabassum and Rahman, 2013; Thomas, 2014; Wright et al.). The proximity of the roles played in these two domains leads to frequent interruptions and difficulties in disengaging from one role in order to fully perform the other, not responding to work demands, and detaching and limiting work (Matusik and Mickel, 2011). This breaking of the physical boundary between work and family leads to work overload and role ambiguity, which ultimately promotes the perception of stress (e.g., Ayyagari et al., 2011). The studies also mention that work spillover via technologies is the source of conflicts with the spouse or partner, family, and friends (e.g., Boswell and Olson-Buchanan, 2007). Le Douarin (2007) also notes that managerial couples who extend work to home via ICT significantly reduce their outdoor leisure time, outings with friends, sleep and domestic activities.

Although much rarer, some studies are more nuanced and emphasise the fact that digital technologies make it possible to take on new work demands, better reconcile them with personal demands, and control more effectively the boundary between work and non-work (Chesley, 2014; Wajcman et al., 2008). For example, the results obtained by Batt and Valcour (2003) indicate that the use of technology for professional purposes, both at work and at home, blurs the distinction between these two domains of life and increases the perception of work-family conflict (for women) but at the same time promotes flexibility and a better integration of the professional and personal spheres, offering the opportunity to better manage work demands.

1.5. Technology use and work engagement

Studies that have sought to understand work engagement have already shown that organisational demands, such as temporary workload, time pressure or performance expectations, can lead to a decrease in engagement (Bakker et al., 2006).

As far as we know, there is very little research that has sought to understand the effects of technology use for work purposes (in the work environment or outside of working hours and place) on employee commitment. However, some studies indicate that the frequency of technology use at work is significantly and negatively correlated with work engagement (i.e., vigour, dedication, absorption; Salanova and Llorens, 2009). The study by Ter Hoeven et al. (2016) shows that the use of technologies supports work engagement provided that these uses are efficient and improve communication processes. When the uses of these technologies involve an increase in activity interruptions, they contribute, on the contrary, to a decrease in commitment and promote burnout. Finally, Boswell and Olson-Buchanan (2007) find that the use of communication technologies outside working hours promotes job commitment (i.e., absorption and importance of work). However, the results indicate that these uses are associated with a lower affective involvement with the work organisation. The authors explain these contrasting results by the fact that these uses, reflecting a significant investment in the professional sphere, could be associated with a feeling of frustration, or even of burnout, which impacts the affective involvement with the work organisation.

1.6. Research objectives

Considering the elements emerging from the literature, we have developed a research model (see figure 1) which aims to understand the effects of professional uses of the Internet —both inside and outside of the time-space formally dedicated to work— on the relationship with the Internet, the work/off-work interface, and commitment to work.

This model is based on the following assumptions:

• the professional use of the Internet at work favours the extension of work via technologies (i.e., spillover work);
• these usage patterns foster the development of excessive Internet behaviour;
• these usage patterns, coupled with a problematic relationship with the Internet, diminish commitment to work and promote the perception of conflict between work and non-work.

Figure 1: Exploratory theoretical model

 

Notes. WD-WW = working day within the working space-time; WD-OW = working day outside the working space-time; DO = days off or holidays; W-NW I = work-nonwork interaction.

2. Method

2.1. Analysis procedure

As will be discussed in the following sections, in this study we relied on confirmatory factor analyses (to evaluate our measurement tools) and causal path analyses (to test our research model). We carried out these analyses with the AMOS 21 software, using the maximum likelihood procedure supplemented, as appropriate, by the bootstrapping procedure (1,000 samples and 95% confidence intervals), which makes it possible to overcome the (multi)normality hypotheses. To estimate the adequacy of each measurement tool, as well as the adequacy of our research model to the collected data, we retained the following fit indices and criteria: a relative chi-square value (χ2/ddl or CMIN/ddl) of < 3, a comparative fit index (CFI) of ≥.95, a goodness-of-fit index (GFI) of ≥.95, an adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI) of ≥.90, and a root-mean-square error of approximation index (RMSEA) of <.06.

2.2. Measures

In order to test our research model, we conducted a questionnaire survey among managers and/or supervisors, since, as mentioned above, this is a category of workers who are more likely to use technologies in the workplace and to engage in spillover work via these technologies (e.g., Boswell and Olson-Buchanan, 2007; Isaac et al., 2007; Thomas, 2014).

We measured their use of the Internet for professional purposes within their time and place of work, but also outside of it; their relationship with the Internet; their commitment to work; and finally, the perceived impact of their work on their ‘off-work’ life. We therefore focused on representations, attitudes, and behaviours as perceived and reported by the interviewees.

2.2.1. Professional use of the Internet

In order to understand the professional use of the Internet, we asked the participants to specify the time spent (in hours and minutes) per day on the Internet in the context of their professional activity (i.e., exchanges of e-mails and documents of a professional nature, information searches, videoconferences with colleagues or clients, etc.):

• during a typical working day, within the hours and places usually dedicated to work;
• during a typical working day but outside of working hours and places (in the early morning or evening either before or after the working day, at home or while on travel);
• on a typical non-working day (on a weekly rest day or holiday).

2.2.2. Excessive use of the Internet

Executives’ relationship with the Internet was determined using the validated French version of the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) (Young, 1998; Khazaal et al., 2008). Young borrowed the diagnostic criteria used in the field of pathological gambling to define Internet dependence, considering it to be an impulse control disorder. This perspective is in line with other studies that prefer to describe these disorders as problematic uses rather than addiction per se. The IAT consists of 20 items that assess the individuals’ frequency of occurrence of behaviours, attitudes, and feelings regarding their Internet use, as well as the degree of severity of the negative consequences resulting from excessive Internet use (e.g., ‘Do you ever check your e-mail first before doing another necessary and urgent task?’ ; 5-point scale from ‘never’ to ‘always’).

Although we had to eliminate four items to arrive at a structure that met the thresholds set for each index, the results of the confirmatory factor analysis attest to the unidimensional structure of the tool (Khazaal et al., 2008).

2.2.3. The influence of work on ‘off-work life’

To apprehend the nature of the influence of work on ‘off-work life’, we relied on the validated French version (Lourel et al., 2005) of the Workhome Interaction-Nijmeden Survey (Wagena and Geurts, 2000). Given our research objectives, we only focused on the dimensions related to the effects of work on private life. The negative impact of work on ‘off-work life’ was assessed on the basis of eight items (e.g., ‘You find it difficult to fulfil your family obligations because you are always thinking about your work’). The positive impact of work on private life was assessed using five items (e.g., ‘Having to manage your time at work has taught you to better organise your time at home’). Each item is associated with a four-point response scale (ranging from “never” to “always”). The results of the factor analyses confirm the two-dimensional 13-item structure of this part of the scale.

2.2.4. Work engagement

Work engagement was measured using the French version of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (Schaufeli et al., 2002, 2006), available in the UWES manual. It is composed of 17 items which ask participants to position themselves on a seven-point scale (ranging from ‘never’ to ‘always’). Six items capture vigour (e.g., ‘I can work for a long time without stopping’), five items capture dedication (e.g., ‘I find my work meaningful and useful’), and the remaining six items capture absorption (e.g., ‘When I work, I forget everything around me’). The confirmatory factor analyses conducted allow us to arrive at a final three-dimensional structure, similar to the structure validated by the authors, but comprising only nine items (three items per sub-dimension).

2.3. Procedure and participants

In order to recruit employees occupying executive positions (supervisory or otherwise), we approached employees from our personal and professional networks and visited business districts that are conducive to the professional practice of these categories of employees. These were in fact executives or supervisors working in the Île-de-France. In the end, the study sample comprised 389 respondents. These are executives who actually work via Internet (to varying degrees) in time slots, in places or on days that are normally devoted to ‘off-work life’.

Our sample includes almost as many men as women (see Table 1). Slightly less than two thirds of them have at least one child. The age of the participants ranges from 22 to 67 years (mean = 39.83; standard deviation = 9.74). The majority are senior or middle managers working in the private sector.

Table 1. Characteristics of the sample

		N	%
Sex	Male	204	52.4
	Female	185	47.6
Child(ren)	0	142	36.5
	1	88	22.6
	2	108	27.8
	3, 4, 5	51	13.1
Socio-professional category	Company CEO/director, senior executive	240	61.7
	Middle executive	149	38.3
Sector	Private	267	68.6
	Public	122	31.4

3. Results

3.1. Descriptive statistics and preliminary analyses

As shown in Table 2, the executives surveyed appear on average to make a rather moderate use of the Internet in the professional context, whether we consider the uses during a working day (about three and a half hours per day on average) or during normally non-working periods (about one hour per day before or after the working day and one and a half hours during non-working days). However, it should be remembered that our questions focused on Internet use only and do not necessarily reflect all uses of information and communication technologies for professional purposes (offline uses are excluded). Moreover, it is likely that the declared uses are below the actual uses.

Regarding the relationship with the Internet, the participants do not appear to have developed excessive tendencies. Looking at the subjects’ responses and the criteria set by Young (1998), 76.5% of the respondents have a controlled use of the Internet (scores < 40) with the remaining 23.5% having frequent or significant problematic uses.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics for the variables included
in the research model

	M	SD	Median	Min.	Max.	α
Pro WD-WW use (1 item)	3.43	2.28	3	0.25	9.5	––
Pro WD-OW use (1 item)	0.94	0.96	0.5	0	4	––
Pro DO use (1 item)	1.62	1.25	1.5	0.25	8	––
Excessive Internet use (16 items)	29.92	11.33	26	16	70	.92
Vigour (3 items)	14.77	3.40	15	6	21	.70
Absorption (3 items)	12.99	3.40	13	3	21	.71
Dedication (3 items)	15.59	3.40	16	3	21	.82
Negative W-NW I (8 items)	17.29	4.95	17	8	30	.84
Positive W-NW I (5 items)	12.27	2.77	12	5	18	.71

Notes. WD-WW = working day within the working space-time place; WD-OW = working day outside the working space-time; DO = days off or holidays; W-NW I = work-nonwork interaction.

To supplement this information, the participants were also asked what technologies they use at work and whether these technologies are provided (or not) by their employer. The vast majority of respondents (87.9%) have at least one device provided by their employer (mainly desktop computers, laptops, and smartphones). In this respect, it can be seen that the more technological equipment the executives get from their employers, the more they use the Internet for professional purposes during their working day (r =.235; F(1,387) = 22,625; p <.001) as well as outside their working hours and place (professional WD-OW uses: r =.130; F(1,387) = 6,667; p <.01; DO professional uses: r =.129; F(1,387) = 6,536, p <.05). On the other hand, the fact of benefiting from technological devices provided by the employer does not influence any other variable considered in our model.

Finally, we also tested the effects of socio-demographic and socio-professional characteristics on all the variables considered in our research model. Only age has a significant effect on some of them. Indeed, we note that the youngest respondents are those who use the Internet the most in the context of overwork during a working day (r = -.168; F(1,387) = 11.281; p <.001), who have high scores of problematic Internet use (r = -.229; F(1,387) = 21.454; p <.001), and who perceive their work as having the most positive impact on their private life (r = -.125; F(1,387) = 6.189; p <.05). The first two results are in line with those reported by Buckner et al. (2012) and Senarathne Tennakoon et al. (2013), who found that age was negatively related to the intensity of professional ICT use and problematic Internet use among employees. On the other hand, it is noted that the youngest age group also has the lowest vigour (r =.185; F(1,387) = 13.686; p <.001) and absorption (r =.117; F(1,387) = 5.397; p <.05) scores.

Table 3. Correlations between variables in the research model

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
1. Pro WD-WW use	–—
2. Pro WD-OW use	.444**	–—
3. Pro DO use	.347*	.525**	–—
4. Excessive Internet use	.214**	.422**	.408**	–—
5. Vigour	-.120*	-.184**	-.186**	-.357**	–—
6. Absorption	-.050	-.003	-.005	.003	.428**	–—
7. Dedication	-.136**	-.109*	-.194**	-.286**	.599**	.494**	–—
8. Negative W-NW I	.155**	.217**	.124**	.368**	-.118*	.158**	-.164**	–—
9.Positive W-NW I	.105*	.187**	.176**	.364**	-.102*	.116*	.014	.258**	–—

Notes. WD-WW = working day within the working space-time place; WD-OW = working day outside the working space-time; DO = days off or holidays; W-NW I = work-nonwork interaction; *p <.05; **p <.01

Finally, before testing our theoretical research model, we examined the correlations between its variables (see Table 3). First, we note that there are significant and positive links between professional uses of the Internet, whether in or out of the time-space formally dedicated to work, and problematic behaviour with regard to the Internet. Second, we observed that the more intense the professional uses of the Internet, the lower the levels of work engagement and the greater the perceived impact of work on private life, although these correlations are quite weak. The results are strictly equivalent when examining the relationships between excessive Internet use, work engagement and perceived impacts of work on ‘off-work life’, but the correlations are stronger in this case.

It is important to mention that absorption is not significantly correlated with the other variables in the model. Therefore, this sub-dimension of engagement was not considered in the initial model that was analysed.

3.2. Testing the research model

To assess the fit of the data collected to our initial model and, as we will see, to alternative models, we conducted causal path analyses using the maximum likelihood procedure as well as the bootstrapping procedure, which allowed us to test the indirect effects of our variables but also to check the effects of each factor included in the models tested. We first tested our initial model based on the significant correlations observed between the variables included in our research model. As the latter was not satisfactory, and after several rounds of additional analysis to assess the relevance of alternative models, we finally obtained a model that fit our data correctly (see table 4 and figure 2).

Table 4: Model fit indices

	CMIN/ddl	CFI	GFI	AGFI	RMSEA
IM	18.338	86	94	78	.16
FM	1.202	99	99	97	.02

Note. IM = initial model tested; FM = final model.

Figure 2: Final model (best-fit alternative model)

Notes. WD-WW = working day within the working space-time; WD-OW = working day outside the working space-time; DO = days off or holidays; W-NW I = work-nonwork interaction; *p <.05; **p <.01. Non-significant causal paths in the original model have been removed. R² excessive Internet use =.23; R² vigour =.13; R² dedication =.10; R² W-NW negative interaction =.14; R² W-NW positive interaction =.11.
R² problematic Internet uses =.23; R² vigour =.13; R² dedication =.10; R² W-OW negative impact =.14; R² W-OW positive impact =.11.

The model that emerges from our analyses makes it possible to note initially that Internet uses for professional purposes carried out in time-spaces formally dedicated to work encourage the extension of work via the Internet (daily uses before or after the working day and uses during non-working days). Nevertheless, this is not a factor that directly and significantly explains the relationship with the Internet, work engagement or the perceived impacts of work on off-work life.

We also note that ‘overflow’ work via technologies, while clearly favouring the development of attitudes and behaviours with excessive tendencies towards the Internet, only has indirect effects on work engagement and the perceived impacts of work on off-work life.

Our results show that the more executives work via the Internet in the professional context and at work, the more they also work via technologies outside working places and times dedicated (whether during the working day or during their rest/holidays) and the more they show problematic uses of the Internet, leading to a decrease in vigour and dedication and sustaining the permeability between the different domains of life (negative but also positive perceived impacts). Therefore, the use of technology for work purposes, insofar as it is associated with the extension of work outside of work, has rather deleterious (direct or indirect) impacts on health and quality of life.

4. Discussion

As predicted by some research on the field, our study confirms that the use of the Internet and technology in the workplace encourages the extension of work beyond normal hours and supports ‘spillover’ work practices (Boswell and Olson-Buchanan, 2007; Le Douarin, 2007; Rey and Sitnikoff, 2004; Senarathne Tennakoon et al., 2013; Thomas, 2014).

However, one of the major interests of our study lies elsewhere: it enables us to refine our understanding of the effects of technology use for professional purposes by dissociating those that fall within the formal framework of work from those that are part of other spheres of life. It also makes it possible to complete the studies relating to the development of excessive attitudes and behaviours with regard to the Internet in a professional context and helps to explain the contrasting results from the literature on this field. In their study, Widyanto and McMurran (2004) showed that there was no link between weekly work-related Internet use and the degree of Internet addiction, whereas other studies (Beard, 2005; Khazaal et al., 2008; Vanea, 2011) seemed to assert the opposite. Our results indicate that there is indeed no direct link between professional Internet use and the development of problematic behaviours as long as these uses remain confined to the formal sphere of work. When they go beyond this sphere, they contribute to the development of uncontrolled behaviour regarding the Internet among employed professionals.

From the point of view of the work/non-work relationship, if we consider jointly the dimensions relating to the work/off-work life interface, our model confirms the studies that indicate that professional uses, particularly if excessive, contribute to the blurring of the boundaries between work and private life (Isaac et al., 2007; Tabassum and Rahman, 2013; Thomas, 2014). Here we note a significant porosity between these two domains (work is perceived to have a negative but also positive impact on private life), yet —we insist— this is because these uses foster addictive attitudes and behaviours (mediated effects). Here we evince all our interest in understanding both the positive and negative aspects of the impact of work on off-work life. First, because some authors show that these are not necessarily opposing dimensions (Geurts et al. 2005). This helps to explain the contrasting results in the literature on this field, with some studies highlighting the negative effects of the use of technology for work purposes on work-private life balance (Boswell and Olson-Buchanan, 2007; Le Douarin, 2007; Fenner and Renn, 2010; Matusik and Mickel, 2011) and others demonstrating its beneficial effects (Batt and Valcour, 2003; Chesley, 2014; Wajcman et al., 2008). If we wish to fully understand how the uses and relationship with the Internet affect the links between work and private life, we should not confine ourselves to assessing their effects on the conflict between these two domains.

Finally, the final model also seeks to develop multidimensional approaches to apprehend and explain work engagement. The results of our analyses clearly show that the professional uses of ICT and the relationship with the Internet do not act on the same dimensions of engagement: namely, while they affect vigour and dedication, they have no significant effect on absorption. These results are in line with previous research that indicated that intensive use of technology, especially out of formal working hours, decreases organisational involvement and work engagement and may be an indicator of professional over-involvement (Boswell and Olson-Buchanan, 2007; Fenner and Renn, 2010; Salanova and Llorens, 2009; Senarathne Tennakoon et al., 2013; Ter Hoeven et al., 2016). The lower levels of engagement found in our study can be assumed to be a sign of erosion of engagement and an indicator of burnout, since vigour is known to be negatively associated with emotional exhaustion and dedication negatively related to depersonalisation (Bakker et al., 2006; Schaufeli et al., 2002, 2006). The results of Wright et al. (2014), which reveal that overflow work via technologies is a significant, but indirect, factor in burnout, support this interpretative hypothesis.

5. Research perspectives

Although original and informative, we consider that the study we have carried out is only a starting point for investigating the effects of technology and Internet use for professional purposes on work, health, and the balance between different spheres of life.

In view of the contributions but also the limited scope of this initial exploration, we consider it important to continue to develop empirical studies in this field with more heterogeneous and representative samples of workers. In this perspective, if we wish to understand how and to what extent the uses of digital technologies and the Internet influence the targeted processes, we esteem it necessary to rely on mixed and more objective data collection methods. These could be, for example, measuring complementary usages (activity tracking, collecting information at different times of the day, daily activity records over a prolonged period, observations, etc.), or surveying the workers’ personal environment, since the subjects tend to underestimate their uses and impact when overflow work becomes a source of professional benefits or gratification (Boswell and Olson-Buchanan, 2007).

To supplement the results of this research, it is also necessary to carry out studies that make it possible to characterise precisely and exactly the uses in the professional context (according to technologies used, places and times of use, applications or software used, activities carried out and objectives), so as to grasp the differentiated impacts. The aim is to provide the means to identify uses that may have deleterious consequences and/or, on the contrary, rather beneficial effects for work performance, the employee, and the organisation.

Finally, it may be appropriate in future research to explore the potential links between excessive professional Internet uses, relationship with the Internet and relationship with work. A positive relationship between these three dimensions is to be expected, as previous research indicates that work addiction has negative consequences on work-family conflict and that compulsive work and the three dimensions of engagement are negatively correlated (e.g., Schaufeli et al., 2008).

6. Practical implications

Questions about the boundary and balance between work and private life, and also about employees’ health, are now accompanied by reflections on the ‘right to disconnect’ (either during free time or the working day). This new right covers a right to isolation, to peace and quiet, to the possibility of taking time out and not being required to respond immediately to a phone call or e-mail, for example (Rey and Sitnikoff, 2004), ultimately overlapping with the notion of the ‘right to rest’. Since 2010, some large groups or companies based in France have elaborated manuals for the proper use of the Internet and, in particular, e-mailing during or outside working hours. However, these organisational measures need to be further developed and are still not widespread in French companies.

At the same time, prevention programmes concerning Internet use are also beginning to be developed and applied, but still remain very much in the minority. They are based on informing employers and employees about the risks involved in the unsupervised and controlled use of company mobile phones, e-mail, the Internet, etc. However, unlike the United States, problematic uses of the Internet, or even cyberaddiction, are still rarely taken seriously in France: there are not enough support structures and prevention is almost non-existent. As the use of technology and communication tools is widely valued and encouraged by our society, it is easy to understand why cyberaddiction is more socially accepted than other addictions that occur in professional environments. Indeed, the current organisational contexts that advocate efficiency at all costs, permanent availability, and the setting of unattainable or overly high objectives are factors in the development of addictive behaviours at work (Colombier et al., 2007; Durand, et al., 2008; Fenner and Renn, 2010; Matusik and Mickel, 2011; Rey and Sitnikoff, 2004; Thomas, 2014). In view of these contexts and their demands, it is to be expected that behavioural addiction to technology, or at least excessive use of the Internet, may even reflect a positive image of the employee (as is the case for work addiction).

It is therefore necessary to continue and strengthen the reflections and approaches already deployed within work organisations to establish negotiated policies for use outside working hours, protecting employees from their deleterious consequences. The knowledge gained from empirical work in this field (such as the study presented here) could help inform discussions and decisions within work organisations and raise awareness among leaders, managers and directors about the harmful effects of ‘overflow’ work via ICT on the development of problematic uses, the widely known consequences of the porosity between different life domains, and work engagement, both regarding work behaviours and attitudes –workers’ performance and physical and mental health– and the efficiency and productivity of organisations (Christian et al., 2011; Lourel et al., 2005).

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